Introduction

The climate crisis is widely recognised as one of the most significant challenges faced by humanity, necessitating major transformations in infrastructure, economic systems, and individual behaviours. However, efforts to meet these challenges have largely failed, hindered by entrenched interests and institutional inertia. This paper identifies climate activists as key agents of change, acting against these forces. Activists are defined as individuals or collectives who undertake strenuous exertions or risk to advance a cause. The paper responds to a lack of conceptual clarity around climate activism by developing a multi-functional typology of climate activists, integrating diverse academic literatures.

Methodology

The authors reviewed 48 scholarly sources drawn from Google Scholar and Web of Science, focusing on literature from the early 1970s to the present. The typology is constructed based on two key variables: the activist’s focus—endogenous (change from within) or exogenous (change in others)—and their theory of change—collaborative or confrontational. Activists were also analysed by organisational scale: individual, group, coalition, or institutional. The resulting matrix identifies 16 types of climate activists. Though the typology leans towards Global North contexts, it is intended for broader applicability.

Activists in academic literature

The literature distinguishes between exogenous activists, who seek change in others (e.g., protestors), and endogenous activists, who act within systems they are embedded in (e.g., workplaces, institutions). Activist identities and strategies are influenced by personal worldviews, life stages, and group dynamics. Activism operates at multiple levels—individual, group, coalition, and institutional—with some individuals adopting hybrid roles across these scales. Theories of change also vary, with some activists favouring collaboration (dialogue, persuasion), while others adopt confrontation (disruption, civil disobedience).

Typology of the climate activist

The typology categorises climate activists into 16 types:

• Individual–Endogenous–Collaborative: “The Champion” works within their personal or professional environment to embody change.
• Individual–Endogenous–Confrontational: “The Lone Wolf” acts covertly within organisations to force change.
• Group–Endogenous–Collaborative: “Solidarity Networks” form around shared beliefs, such as student-led initiatives like Divest Harvard.
• Group–Endogenous–Confrontational: “Action Groups” employ internal pressure for change, e.g., intra-organisational protest.
• Coalition–Endogenous–Collaborative: “Boundary Spanners” link various internal activist networks for collective impact.
• Coalition–Endogenous–Confrontational: “Resistance Groups” theorised but not yet empirically validated, are suggested as internal networks challenging institutions.
• Institutional–Endogenous–Collaborative: “Shareholder Activists” use governance mechanisms to advocate for change.
• Institutional–Endogenous–Confrontational: “Disrupters” apply insider knowledge to force institutional shifts.
• Individual–Exogenous–Collaborative: “The Influencer”, such as early Greta Thunberg, uses social platforms for advocacy.
• Individual–Exogenous–Confrontational: “The Critic” publicly challenges authorities, e.g., journalists like George Monbiot.
• Group–Exogenous–Collaborative: “Pressure Groups” engage through symbolic protest and rational discourse.
• Group–Exogenous–Confrontational: “Social Movements” utilise mass civil disobedience; examples include Extinction Rebellion.
• Coalition–Exogenous–Collaborative: “Epistemic Communities & Organisers” use scientific expertise to influence change.
• Coalition–Exogenous–Confrontational: “Advocacy Coalitions” unite actors across divides for policy impact, e.g., Tipping Point.
• Institutional–Exogenous–Collaborative: “Experts”, such as IPCC scientists, risk professional standing to advocate change.
• Institutional–Exogenous–Confrontational: “Judicial Activists” employ legal avenues, e.g., ClientEarth.

Conclusion
This typology is a foundational attempt to systematically categorise climate activists by focus, theory of change, and scale. While useful for conceptual clarity, it may not capture the full complexity of activist identities, especially outside the Global North. The authors highlight the need for further empirical validation and exploration of under-researched activist types, such as resistance groups, and call for future studies on the evolution of activist identities and theories of change over time.