This research article explores the rapid proliferation of data centres across the United States, driven primarily by the demand for generative artificial intelligence (AI). The authors argue that this expansion reproduces systemic harm and disproportionately burdens marginalised communities through significant environmental impacts and the strain on public infrastructure. Without intervention, hyperscale data centre development threatens to facilitate the rescission of social provisions and place unprecedented pressures on local populations. The study advocates for a shift toward a “more human pace” of development that heeds the demands and health of frontline communities.

Compounding burdens on poor, communities of colour

The unequal distribution of livable environments is a central feature of current extractive assemblages. A prominent example is the development of “Colossus”, a pair of hyperscale data centre facilities in Memphis, Tennessee, and Southaven, Mississippi, owned by xAI. The construction of Colossus represents a new chapter of extractive infrastructure in Boxtown, a predominantly Black neighbourhood already suffering from high rates of asthma due to its proximity to oil refineries and power plants. Residents have reported worsening health conditions, including severe asthma attacks and an inability to breathe, since natural gas turbines were brought online to power the facility.

Legal action has been initiated by organisations including Earthjustice and the NAACP against xAI over the illegal operation of 27 gas turbines. These turbines have the potential to emit more than 1,700 tons of nitrogen oxide, 180 tons of particulate matter, 500 tons of carbon monoxide, and 19 tons of formaldehyde per year—chemicals known to cause cardiovascular disease and cancer. Despite these findings, the Department of Justice has filed to dismiss the lawsuit, citing national security concerns related to AI development for defence.

Energy affordability is another grave concern for host communities. In Loudoun County, Virginia, which hosts the world’s largest cluster of hyperscale data centres, an independent study found that increased electricity demand could raise typical residential costs by an estimated $14 to $37 monthly by 2040. An energy burden is considered significant when 6 per cent or more of a household’s income is directed toward energy costs. This burden is often racialised, with African American majority census tracts experiencing higher rates of energy insecurity due to historical redlining and financial exclusion. The resulting strain on the grid forces many households to choose between basic electricity and other essentials like medication or childcare.

State deregulation, or privatisation of public services and subsidisation of private needs

The state plays an active role in permitting data centre development, often creating conditions of lethality for marginalised groups. The report notes that federal support for streamlining permitting processes and a refusal to enforce air pollution standards under the Clean Air Act have facilitated this growth. Data centre operators are increasingly building “shadow grids”—off-grid energy plants using natural gas systems—to bypass grid connection delays and future regulations. These plants are described as wildly inefficient and potentially deadly, sometimes utilising mobile gas generators originally designed for aircraft or ships.

Water usage is a critical but opaque issue. While corporate transparency is lacking, research suggests US data centres could collectively require between 697 and 1,452 million gallons of water per day by 2030. In water-stressed areas like the Southwestern United States, this usage exacerbates drought conditions. In Arizona, data centre expansion coincided with one of the worst droughts on record, forcing farmers to fallow fields. In The Dalles, Oregon, a hyperscale company sued to prevent its water usage records from being made public.

Furthermore, 38 states offer tax abatements and subsidies to data centre operators. Texas is projected to lose $3.2 billion in sales tax revenue over the next two years due to such programmes. In Michigan, tax exemptions for the Switch data centre resulted in lost revenue for public education budgets, affecting teacher salaries and facility maintenance. Rather than receiving investment, some local school districts were even considered for legislation that would require them to reimburse companies for taxes already paid, further straining public finances.

A more human pace

The prevailing industry motto of “move fast and break things” is identified as a driver of systemic harms. To move at a more human pace requires moving beyond colonial and racial orderings of knowledge that allow this technology to proliferate. It necessitates a shift away from the enclosure of public information and the accumulation of wealth through the dispossession of people’s rights to a livable, desirable life.

Frontline communities are resisting these trends through community benefits agreements, litigation, and local opposition. Coordinated local opposition has reportedly led to upward of $156 billion being wasted in blocked or delayed projects. Frameworks such as the NAACP’s Frontline Framework Community Data Center Guiding Principles offer a path for communities to advocate for developments that contribute to environmental justice and public benefit. The authors conclude that delays, setbacks, and siting challenges are necessary pathways to unlocking the potential for data centres to function as humane technological assemblages.