Introduction

The Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage (2022) by the ILO, Walk Free, and IOM presents data indicating that 49.6 million people live in modern slavery—27.6 million in forced labour and 22 million in forced marriage. The estimates, covering 2017–2021, are derived from 68 forced labour and 75 forced marriage household surveys and IOM trafficking data. The report supports the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 8.7, which seeks to end modern slavery among children by 2025 and universally by 2030.

Scale and manifestations of modern slavery

Modern slavery encompasses forced labour and forced marriage, both involving coercion, threats, or abuse of power preventing victims from leaving or refusing exploitation. The 2021 estimates show that one in every 150 people is affected globally. Women and girls comprise 54 per cent of all victims, and children account for 15 per cent. The highest prevalence occurs in low-income countries, though absolute numbers are greatest in Asia and the Pacific, where 29 million people are affected.

Forced labour

Of the 27.6 million in forced labour, 17.3 million are in sectors such as manufacturing, construction, services, and agriculture, 6.3 million in forced commercial sexual exploitation, and 3.9 million in state-imposed forced labour. Migrant workers are disproportionately represented, being three times more likely than non-migrants to experience forced labour. The report notes that exploitation persists across both formal and informal sectors and highlights how global supply chains play a role.

Forced labour exploitation

Privately imposed forced labour often occurs in the market economy, including domestic work and agriculture, and sometimes stems from hereditary slavery or debt bondage. The report underscores the need for stronger legal frameworks, human rights due diligence laws, and enforcement mechanisms to ensure accountability throughout business operations and supply chains.

Forced commercial sexual exploitation

Around 6.3 million people—predominantly women and girls—are subject to forced commercial sexual exploitation. This form of slavery is often associated with trafficking networks, economic precarity, and gender-based violence. It requires integrated responses combining legal reform, victim protection, and prevention initiatives.

Forced labour of children

Approximately 3.3 million children are in forced labour, including 1.7 million in commercial sexual exploitation. Children are often coerced into hazardous work, illicit activities, and domestic service. The report calls for strengthening child protection systems, enforcing international conventions, and expanding education and social safety nets.

State-imposed forced labour

An estimated 3.9 million people are subjected to forced labour imposed by state authorities, including through prison labour, military conscription, or political coercion. The report highlights legislative reforms in countries such as Uzbekistan, Viet Nam, and Türkiye, where state-imposed labour has been curtailed through policy changes and legal amendments.

Forced marriage

There are 22 million people in forced marriages, with 14 per cent of victims under 18 at the time of marriage. Most cases involve women and girls. Forced marriage, recognised under SDG 5.3 as a harmful practice, remains widespread in regions with entrenched gender inequality and economic hardship. The report notes that coercion can involve family or social pressure, threats, or deception, and that these marriages often lead to lifelong disadvantage and abuse.

Ending modern slavery: The path to 2030

The report emphasises that progress requires stronger governance, enforcement of labour and marriage laws, and improved victim identification and assistance systems. Governments bear primary responsibility, supported by civil society, businesses, and international organisations. Policy priorities include integrating anti-slavery measures into labour market, trade, and migration policies; implementing human rights due diligence laws; expanding social protection; and promoting decent work opportunities.

Post-crisis recovery strategies should incorporate employment-intensive investments, rebuild social dialogue, and prevent regression in labour rights. Addressing underlying vulnerabilities—poverty, gender inequality, and lack of education—is essential to prevent recurrence.

Annex: methodology

The estimates combine nationally representative household surveys conducted through the Gallup World Poll and anonymised victim data from IOM’s Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative. Statistical modelling and weighting techniques were applied to generate regional and global estimates across 189 countries, covering 99.7 per cent of the global population.

Overall, the report concludes that modern slavery remains pervasive and entrenched in global economies and social systems. Without accelerated action and stronger cross-sector cooperation, achieving the 2030 target to eradicate forced labour and forced marriage will remain out of reach.