Basis of life: No water, no life

Water is fundamental to all life, covering more than two-thirds of the planet. However, only 0.3 per cent of freshwater—around 120,000 cubic kilometres—is in constant circulation between land and sea. This vital resource is unevenly distributed and increasingly threatened by overuse, pollution, and the climate crisis. Human interventions have caused groundwater levels to fall drastically in regions like Pakistan, northern India, and the USA. Biodiversity in aquatic environments is declining so rapidly that one-quarter of known freshwater fish species are currently threatened with extinction.

Human right: Water for all

The United Nations has declared water a human right, yet over a quarter of the world’s population lacks safe access to drinking water. One individual requires between 50 to 100 litres daily for basic hygiene and consumption. In the European Union, approximately 20 per cent of land area and 30 per cent of the population face water stress. Inequality in access is stark, as demonstrated in Cape Town, where water scarcity disproportionately affects economically marginalised informal dwellers. Better access to water and sanitation could save more than 1.4 million lives annually worldwide.

Climate: Under pressure

Global warming significantly impacts the water cycle; each degree Celsius of warming increases the atmosphere’s capacity to absorb moisture by 7 per cent. This leads to more frequent and intense droughts and floods. In Central Africa, Lake Chad has shrunk by 90 per cent, endangering the livelihoods of 14 million people. Wealthy countries are not immune; in California, groundwater levels have fallen by more than 30 metres in many locations.

Biodiversity: Wet habitats

Healthy ecosystems like wetlands and peatlands are essential for water purification and flood protection. Since 1970, Europe’s migratory freshwater fish populations have declined by 93 per cent due to habitat loss and climate change. Peatlands, when healthy, act as critical carbon sinks, but 95 per cent of Germany’s peatlands have been artificially drained for agriculture and forestry.

Consumption: Tapped out

Global water consumption has increased sixfold over the past century and is projected to grow by a further 20 to 30 per cent by 2050. Agriculture accounts for nearly 70 per cent of all freshwater withdrawals, while industry uses roughly 19 per cent. Virtual water costs are significant: producing a single smartphone can require 12,000 litres, while a pair of leather shoes uses thousands of litres during tanning and processing.

Pollution: Murky depths

Approximately 80 per cent of global wastewater enters water bodies untreated. In the European Union, only 37 per cent of surface waters achieve a good ecological status, often due to excessive fertilisation from industrial agriculture. Contamination from PFAS, known as ‘forever chemicals’, is widespread, with these substances detected in 94 per cent of tap water samples taken from 11 EU countries across the European Union.

Privatisation: The story of a wrong turn

Selling public water systems to private companies has often resulted in higher prices and neglected infrastructure. Studies of the 500 largest US water systems found that private utilities charged significantly higher rates than state-run equivalents. Between 2000 and 2015, 235 cases were recorded where water and sewerage utilities were returned to municipal control, including in Berlin and Thessaloniki.

Conflicts: Dividing the waters

Water scarcity exacerbates social tensions and international conflicts. There are 313 transboundary surface water bodies globally that require cooperative management. Tensions exist between Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sudan over the Nile’s water, and in Central Asia regarding discharges from the Toktugul dam. International agreements are essential to promote cooperation over competition.

Agriculture: Drying out

Agriculture is the largest consumer of water, using 72 per cent of global freshwater. In Punjab, India, groundwater levels have dropped by up to 40 metres in 30 years. Diets in the European Union also place high demand on resources, with meat production requiring 82 litres of blue water per person daily.

Vegetable farming: Thirsty tomatoes in dry landscapes

Spain serves as a case study for the risks of export-oriented industrial cultivation. In Almeria, greenhouses covering 30,000 hectares create an annual water deficit of 170 million cubic metres. This overuse allows seawater to seep into groundwater, rendering it saline and unusable. In Doñana National Park, water diversion for agriculture has caused the number of birds to fall from 470,000 to 87,500.

Energy: Our power craves water

Energy production and water are deeply interconnected. Cooling for electricity generation is a primary water abstraction sector in many EU states, accounting for 36 per cent of total abstraction. While renewables like wind and solar cut water use, other technologies like Carbon Capture and Storage could nearly double humanity’s water footprint.

Digitalisation: Thirsty data

Digitalisation requires massive volumes of water for cooling data centres. Google used 20 per cent more water in 2022 than in the previous year, while Microsoft’s usage rose by 34 per cent. Training the ChatGPT model GPT-3 required 700,000 litres of fresh water. By 2030, data centre water use in Europe could match that of a major city like Munich.

Metal mining: The great water robbery

Mining operations, particularly for copper and lithium, destroy glaciers and displace Indigenous Peoples. In Chile, mining has used up more than 65 per cent of available water in the Salar de Atacama region. Global demand for lithium is projected to increase thirteenfold by 2040.

Extreme weather: What really keeps us safe?

Economic losses from climate-related extremes in the EU reached 186 billion euros in Germany and 145 billion euros in Italy between 1980 and 2024. Adaptation strategies such as ‘sponge cities’ and restoring wetlands are critical for future resilience.

European Union: Nature can’t wait

Fewer than 40 per cent of EU surface waters are considered healthy. Robust legislation exists, such as the Water Framework Directive, but consistent enforcement and real accountability from governments are needed to achieve good ecological status by 2027.

Solutions: Cultivating water

Renaturalising floodplains can retain up to 10,000 cubic metres of water per hectare. Moving towards a circular economy that prioritises recycling and reuse is essential for safeguarding the world’s water resources and ensuring long-term sustainability.