Introduction

Cotton is the most widely used natural fibre in the fashion, textile, and apparel industry. This study addresses critical data gaps and methodological inconsistencies in existing cotton Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) data, which is often criticized for being outdated, incomplete, or poorly documented. Recent reports, such as identifying low-carbon sources under the Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action, have highlighted limitations regarding regional resolution and inconsistencies in modelling field emissions, soil organic carbon changes, and biogenic carbon accounting. This project proactively initiated an extensive stakeholder dialogue to assess the existing availability of cultivation data and document the specific aspects of cotton cultivation and recycling that drive environmental impacts.

Goal of the study

The primary objective is to provide the industry with high-quality, transparent, and regionally relevant environmental data for cotton production systems. This includes country averages, organic, regenerative, and recycled cotton. The study supports environmental hotspot analysis, scenario modelling, and Scope 3 emissions reporting. It is designed to be a foundational resource and is explicitly non-comparative; it must not be used for public claims or to rank different production systems or countries. It aims to demonstrate that measurable reductions in environmental impacts are achievable and that these impacts can be quantified and reported.

Scope of the study

The assessment follows an attributional LCA approach with cradle-to-gin-gate boundaries. For cotton cultivation, the functional unit is 1 kilogram (kg) of lint cotton at the gin gate. Geographies include Brazil, selected regions of China, India, Peru, Tanzania, Türkiye, and the United States (US). For recycled cotton, the scope covers post-industrial yarn waste, post-industrial fabric waste, and post-consumer waste, with a functional unit of 1 kg of recycled cotton fibre product. Mechanical recycling via shredding is the focus, with averages provided for Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan, and Türkiye. System boundaries include waste collection, transport, and mechanical recycling processes.

Life cycle inventory analysis

The study prioritised the use of available primary data from cotton initiatives, certification schemes, and research collaborations. Secondary data was used to fill gaps, sourced from agricultural statistics such as the ICAC. All data sources underwent a Data Quality Rating (DQR) assessment considering technological, geographical, and temporal representativeness. For instance, Indian country average data achieved a DQR of 1.8 (Level 1), indicating high quality. Conversely, some organic datasets from Brazil and Türkiye were classified as Level 3 due to limited sample sizes. For recycled cotton, the lack of benchmark inventory data caused issues with the validation of reported data, leading to the use of secondary data and scenario analysis to address gaps.

Results

Climate change impacts in cotton cultivation are primarily driven by field emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O) resulting from nitrogen fertiliser application. In India, the country average scenario showed a total climate change impact of 4.17 kg CO₂ eq./kg fibre, with field emissions contributing 1.62 kg and fertiliser provision 1.56 kg. In the US, the country average was 1.55 kg CO₂ eq./kg fibre. Brazil’s country average was 2.46 kg CO₂ eq./kg fibre, where land use change (LUC) was the dominant driver at 1.29 kg.

For recycled cotton, electricity consumption is the dominant driver, contributing between 58.4% and 88.3% of total climate change results. Post-industrial yarn waste results in 0.441 kg CO₂ eq./kg fibre, while post-consumer waste (domestic) is 0.786 kg CO₂ eq./kg fibre. If post-consumer waste is shipped internationally, impacts rise to 1.14 kg CO₂ eq./kg fibre due to transportation. Eutrophication results are similarly dominated by field emissions, contributing at least 90% of the total in most cultivation systems. Freshwater ecotoxicity results are almost exclusively driven by pesticide use, though these results carry substantial uncertainty due to variability in characterisation factors.

Interpretation

Scenario analyses reveal that results are sensitive to methodological choices. Including the environmental burdens of organic fertiliser provision can increase climate change impacts for organic and regenerative systems by approximately 50% on average. Switching to 100% renewable electricity at ginning facilities can reduce total cotton fibre climate impacts by approximately 9%. For recycled cotton, switching to renewable electricity offers decarbonisation potential of up to 85.4%, reducing impacts to between 0.07 and 0.143 kg CO₂ eq. per kg of spinnable fibre.

Results of the LCA+ approach

The LCA+ approach integrated soil health, biodiversity, and social impacts. Using soil organic carbon (SOC) as a proxy, findings suggest that combining no-tillage with high organic inputs could sequester an average of 4.67 kg CO₂ eq./kg fibre. Biodiversity was assessed via proxy indicators such as land use change and water consumption, highlighting that site-specific conditions are critical. A human rights screening survey indicated that issues affecting workers, including child labour risks and wage gaps, persist across the supply chain, particularly in cultivation. Recommendations include prioritising direct communication with workers in an anonymised way and increasing the representativeness of social surveys through larger participant numbers across different geographies.